Biology

Let’s discuss gene expression, using the human beta-globin (HBB) gene as an example. Recall that beta-globin is one of the polypeptide subunits of hemoglobin, the protein that carries oxygen in red blood cells. Some additional information can be found in your Molecular Genetics lab and here: https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/gene/HBB# Imagine that you are a wild-type (HbA) allele of the HBB gene located on human chromosome 11. Writing from the first person perspective, how is the beta-globin polypeptide produced from your gene? In your response, be sure to describe the three main processes involved in eukaryotic gene expression: transcription, RNA processing, and translation. Conclude by discussing the mutation in the beta-globin gene that results in sickle cell anemia.

what happens to excess protein intake

Part 1: You will be researching the development of the human fetus through its 9 month development process. Please use this website for your project: . The website gives information about development of structures and organ systems. When using the site it is recommended that you un-select all systems, then select ONLY the systems you need for that particular question. Any problems, ask! Please be sure your answers are in complete sentences. 1. HCG (human chorionic gonadotropin) is the “pregnancy hormone” detected in pregnancy tests. How early can this be detected in a mother’s urine? 2. When do the first organ systems (neural and cardiovascular) begin to develop? Why do you think these develop first? 3. What are the main events happening during weeks 3-5? Do most women know they are pregnant at this stage, and do you think that the events occurring during this period might be sensitive to substances such as alcohol? 4. When does the palate close? 5. When does the heart complete development? 6. What is surfactant and when does it begin to be produced? 7. The default gender is female. As we know, genes on the Y chromosome produce testosterone, which lead the embryo down the path to being male. When does testosterone begin to be produced? 8. What is the first hormone produced in the body of the fetus and when does it begin to be secreted? 9. When does urine begin to be produced? 10. At what point do females have the maximum number of oogonia? Part 2: You will be researching a birth defect that is known to be either genetic in nature or to be caused by exposure to an outside agent. The defect you will research will be randomly assigned to you by the instructor. My birth defect is Neurofibromatosis. Your job will be to answer the following questions about your birth defect. Please write this portion of the project in ESSAY FORM (not just answering the questions). It is not required that you use the same website used in Part 1 for Part 2; please give references for Part 2. • What organ system(s) does your birth defect affect? When are these system(s) developing (what part of what month)? • If known, what is the cause of this birth defect? What are the symptoms? What, if anything, can be done to treat this defect? • If caused by a toxic agent, would it be safe to be exposed to your outside agent at times other than when your target organs are developing? Why or why not? If genetic, what is the specific genetic cause or chromosomal abnormality?

Lab #6: DNA Extraction You are going to use two online resources to extract DNA. One will be a virtual lab and one you will do in your own kitchen following the directions. Use the worksheet in the assignment resources to complete the lab write-up for the Part 2. Resources:  Virtual DNA Extraction How to Extract DNA from Anything Living!  Part 1: Virtual DNA Extraction Go to the above website and follow the instructions. Answer the questions below. Note: This part does not need to be in a “lab write-up format.” What are some reasons we extract DNA? Where is DNA found in the cell? What type of cells were collected from the test subject? What are the four steps of DNA purification? Explain what the ingredients in the lysis solution do.  What is the end result of the DNA extraction? Part 2: How to Extract DNA From Anything Living! (this part needs to follow the lab write-up format) Problem: What is the appearance of DNA when it is isolated from the rest of the cell? Hypothesis: write in an if…then…format Materials: list the materials you used Method: briefly summarize the steps you took in the lab Note: Place isopropyl alcohol into the freezer…it should work better! Results: (Make a sketch of the test tube with labels for each layer.) Discussion/Analysis: Why did we need to use the liquid soap? (hint: what does the soap do to the cell membranes?) Why did we add enzymes to the solution?  Try at least on other experiment with DNA extraction. What did you change? What was the result? DNA can be isolated from any cell in a manner similar to this. What could extracted DNA be used for? The DNA of all organisms contains the same four bases – adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine. What might this similarity indicate about the origins of life on Earth?  Conclusion: Answer the problem question.

1. What the neuromuscular junction is? 2. Explain Steps in Neuron (action potential) 3. Explain Skeletal muscle contraction

M7 Written AssignmentAnswering each assigned question in 2 to 3 complete, and well written paragraphs is a requirement.This will give your professor a clear view of the concepts, facts, and themes that you are understanding and what you still need to work on.You are required to answer each written assignment questions in several (2- 3 or more), well-written, thoughtful paragraphs, IN YOUR OWN WORDS_(new window) If you find it especially difficult to rephrase technical and scientific material, you are not alone. Ask your professor for help.The questions in the written assignments were purposely created to encourage you to think, make connections, and apply what you have learned. Most of the answers will not be found word for word in the text or the commentaries. This is deliberate – to help you learn to think through and interpret new information. Do your best with them and ask for help if you find yourself stumped or spending unreasonable or unprofitable amounts of time on them. There is very little if anything to be gained educationally from spending inordinate or inappropriate amounts of time on one question or another. Ask your instructor a question any time you find yourself frustrated, panicked, or overwhelmed.Answering assigned questions in 2 to 3 complete, well written paragraphs will give your instructor a clear view of the concepts, facts, and themes that you are understanding and what you still need to work on. Please review the college’s policy on academic integrity_(new window) and let us know if you have any questions.Please don’t hesitate to ask a question about these questions. You may want to read these questions before reading the text, as well as afterwards, to highlight what is considered important and what we hope for you to take away.QuestionsQuestion 1 (5 points)Briefly describe the journey that a bite of food takes through the digestive system, starting at the mouth an ending at the anus. Include the structures through which the food passes, and what is happening in each location as the food moves through.Question 2 (5 points)Many pathogens evade the immune system by altering their outer surface in some way. Based on what you know about the functioning of the immune system, why is this often a successful approach?Question 3 (5 points)What is an opportunistic infection? Name two diseases or conditions that could result in opportunistic infections. Explain your answer.Question 4 (5 points)Briefly describe how the hormones FSH and LH are involved in regulating the female reproductive system. Do they have any role in the male reproductive system? Explain.

The effect of quantum physics on biology on a cellular level

Write a report that covers the following parts: Background – what is the topic? Describe it. Relavence – how does this topic relate to something we learned in class? Importance – why should we care about this topic?

1. By clicking on this link, you can watch a short video of what happens to the food you eat as it passes from your mouth to your intestine. Along the way, note how the food changes consistency and form. How does this change in consistency facilitate your gaining nutrients from food? 2. Visit this site for an overview of digestion of food in different regions of the digestive tract. Note the route of non-fat nutrients from the small intestine to their release as nutrients to the body. 3. Watch this animation to see how swallowing is a complex process that involves the nervous system to coordinate the actions of upper respiratory and digestive activities. During which stage of swallowing is there a risk of food entering respiratory pathways and how is this risk blocked? 4. Watch this animation that depicts the structure of the stomach and how this structure functions in the initiation of protein digestion. This view of the stomach shows the characteristic rugae. What is the function of these rugae? 5. Watch this animation that depicts the structure of the small intestine, and, in particular, the villi. Epithelial cells continue the digestion and absorption of nutrients and transport these nutrients to the lymphatic and circulatory systems. In the small intestine, the products of food digestion are absorbed by different structures in the villi. Which structure absorbs and transports fats? 6. By watching this animation, you will see that for the various food groups—proteins, fats, and carbohydrates—digestion begins in different parts of the digestion system, though all end in the same place. Of the three major food classes (carbohydrates, fats, and proteins), which is digested in the mouth, the stomach, and the small intestine? 7. Watch this video to see the structure of the liver and how this structure supports the functions of the liver, including the processing of nutrients, toxins, and wastes. At rest, about 1500 mL of blood per minute flow through the liver. What percentage of this blood flow comes from the hepatic portal system? 33. Explain how the enteric nervous system supports the digestive system. What might occur that could result in the autonomic nervous system having a negative impact on digestion? 34. What layer of the alimentary canal tissue is capable of helping to protect the body against disease, and through what mechanism? 35. Offer a theory to explain why segmentation occurs and peristalsis slows in the small intestine. 36. It has been several hours since you last ate. Walking past a bakery, you catch a whiff of freshly baked bread. What type of reflex is triggered, and what is the result? 37. The composition of saliva varies from gland to gland. Discuss how saliva produced by the parotid gland differs in action from saliva produced by the sublingual gland. 38. During a hockey game, the puck hits a player in the mouth, knocking out all eight of his most anterior teeth. Which teeth did the player lose and how does this loss affect food ingestion? 39. What prevents swallowed food from entering the airways? 40. Explain the mechanism responsible for gastroesophageal reflux. 41. Describe the three processes involved in the esophageal phase of deglutition. 42. Explain how the stomach is protected from self-digestion and why this is necessary. 43. Describe unique anatomical features that enable the stomach to perform digestive functions. 44. Explain how nutrients absorbed in the small intestine pass into the general circulation. 45. Why is it important that chyme from the stomach is delivered to the small intestine slowly and in small amounts? 46. Describe three of the differences between the walls of the large and small intestines. 47. Why does the pancreas secrete some enzymes in their inactive forms, and where are these enzymes activated? 48. Describe the location of hepatocytes in the liver and how this arrangement enhances their function. 49. Explain the role of bile salts and lecithin in the emulsification of lipids (fats). 50. How is vitamin B12 absorbed? 30. Describe how metabolism can be altered. 31. Describe how Addison’s disease can be treated. 32. Explain how glucose is metabolized to yield ATP. 33. Insulin is released when food is ingested and stimulates the uptake of glucose into the cell. Discuss the mechanism cells employ to create a concentration gradient to ensure continual uptake of glucose from the bloodstream. 34. Discuss how carbohydrates can be stored as fat. 35. If a diabetic’s breath smells like alcohol, what could this mean? 36. Amino acids are not stored in the body. Describe how excess amino acids are processed in the cell. 37. Release of trypsin and chymotrypsin in their active form can result in the digestion of the pancreas or small intestine itself. What mechanism does the body employ to prevent its self-destruction? 38. In type II diabetes, insulin is produced but is nonfunctional. These patients are described as “starving in a sea of plenty,” because their blood glucose levels are high, but none of the glucose is transported into the cells. Describe how this leads to malnutrition. 39. Ketone bodies are used as an alternative source of fuel during starvation. Describe how ketones are synthesized. 40. How does vasoconstriction help increase the core temperature of the body? 41. How can the ingestion of food increase the body temperature? 42. Weight loss and weight gain are complex processes. What are some of the main factors that influence weight gain in people? 43. Some low-fat or non-fat foods contain a large amount of sugar to replace the fat content of the food. Discuss how this leads to increased fat in the body (and weight gain) even though the item is non-fat. 31. What is suggested by the presence of white blood cells found in the urine? 32. Both diabetes mellitus and diabetes insipidus produce large urine volumes, but how would other characteristics of the urine differ between the two diseases? 33. Why are females more likely to contract bladder infections than males? 34. Describe how forceful urination is accomplished. 35. What anatomical structures provide protection to the kidney? 36. How does the renal portal system differ from the hypothalamo–hypophyseal and digestive portal systems? 37. Name the structures found in the renal hilum. 38. Which structures make up the renal corpuscle? 39. What are the major structures comprising the filtration membrane? 40. Give the formula for net filtration pressure. 41. Name at least five symptoms of kidney failure. 42. Which vessels and what part of the nephron are involved in countercurrent multiplication? 43. Give the approximate osmolarity of fluid in the proximal convoluted tubule, deepest part of the loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule, and the collecting ducts. 44. Explain what happens to Na+ concentration in the nephron when GFR increases. 45. If you want the kidney to excrete more Na+ in the urine, what do you want the blood flow to do? 46. What organs produce which hormones or enzymes in the renin–angiotensin system? 47. PTH affects absorption and reabsorption of what? 48. Why is ADH also called vasopressin? 49. How can glucose be a diuretic? 50. How does lack of protein in the blood cause edema? 51. Which three electrolytes are most closely regulated by the kidney?

Describe how the Hershey-Chase experiment demonstrated that DNA is the genetic material, not protein as previously thought. Explain how they used radioactive isotopes and bacteriophages in their experiment and summarize their conclusions. Distinguish between inducible operons and repressible operons and explain how they work. Describe the three types of prokaryotic genetic recombination (conjugation, transformation, and transduction). Explain how recombination might interfere with the metabolic functions of operons, such as the lac operon or trp operon of E. coli.